miércoles, 20 de febrero de 2008

How to Write a Literature Review

from wikiHow - The How to Manual That You Can Edit

This article will help you understand the essentials of writing a literature review. Whether it is for a school report, a newspaper, or just a review for a friend, literature reviews can make you seem smart and help others find the gift of reading. Knowing how to properly write one is a very important skill to have.

Steps

Read the Book. This may seem obvious, but reading the book is key to a good review.
Understand the Book. If you don't understand the book, you can not write a good review.
As you read, make note of different things about the book (is it in 1st person or 3rd person, does it use a good selection of intelligent and eloquent words, does it accuratly paint a picture in your mind, etc.).
When you have sufficient notes you are ready to write the actual article.
Begin with an introduction. Briefly state the author, title, publisher, and any other information about the book you see pertinent.
In the first section, give a brief history of the author (previous works, awards, etc.)
In the second section, outline the plot of the book (see Warnings).
Next, use your notes to write a paragraph explaining your opinion of the way the book was written, as before mentioned.
Use the final paragraph as a summary of the whole review. Give your opinion of the book (I enjoyed this book, I hated this book, etc.) and finish by recommending the book. State who would enjoy this book, using general terms (children, action lovers, etc.). At the end, include your full name and, optionally, your e-mail address.

Tips

If the book was made into a movie, watch the movie, but reread the book after to refresh your memory, because movies often leave out parts and twist parts to make a good movie. If you do not want to reread the book, or even view an online summary, do not watch the movie.

Warnings

When you are outlining the plot, DO NOT reveal any major happenings. Reading about character deaths, marriages, or other spoilers can do just that, spoil the book. If someone reads all of these revelations in an article, they may not want to read the book, or not enjoy the suspense if they do read the book.

Things You'll Need

a book to review
something to take notes on
the ability to write well
something to write or type the final review onto
(optional) the internet to read the online summaries
(optional) the movie adaptation of the book

Related wikiHows

Article provided by wikiHow, a collaborative writing project to build the world's largest, highest quality how-to manual. Please edit this article and find author credits at the original wikiHow article on How to Write a Literature Review. All content on wikiHow can be shared under a Creative Commons license.

How to Write a Play Review

from wikiHow - The How to Manual That You Can Edit

Writing a play review is something that must be done with much time and care. People will read the review and it may affect their decision to go/not go to the play you are writing about. To learn how to write a review, please read more below.

Steps

Include the who, what, where, when. Example: What: "George and Margaret" Who: Norhshore Drama Dept. Where: Northshore High When: January 10th, 2008.
Write about the casting. Was it well cast or poorly cast? Who were the students/people that were cast? Why do you think they cast it the way they did?
Write about the plot. Include a plot description! (If you need help, you can look for one online). Was the plot interesting? Boring? Sad? Funny? Romantic?
Consider the theme of the show. What elements make up that theme?
Think about the style of the play. How can you tell the type of style this play has? Is there more than one style choice?
Comment on the costumes. Did they fit the character? Who designed them?
Comment on the set. Does the set add something extra to the play? Who designed/worked on the set? Make sure to give credit!
Talk about the director(s). Try to get an interview with them.
Discuss memorable quotes. List several examples and explanations into why they are memorable.
Type the review and feel free to do what you wish with it!

Tips

Don't forget about a catchy intro and a good conclusion!
Add your name at the bottom!

Warnings

If you give someone a bad review, BEWARE! Things could get bad for you.

Things You'll Need

A Play to go see
A play bill
A computer
Printer
Paper
This wiki

Article provided by wikiHow, a collaborative writing project to build the world's largest, highest quality how-to manual. Please edit this article and find author credits at the original wikiHow article on How to Write a Play Review. All content on wikiHow can be shared under a Creative Commons license.

How to Write a Movie Review

from wikiHow - The How to Manual That You Can Edit

While it seems easy to write a movie review, there are many difficulties involved. You have to keep your mind open, and view it with an open mind. Look at it as it is written, and not because you may not like the actor or director. Remember millions of people will take your opinion seriously and a movie reviewer can make or break a movie.

Steps

Watch a movie, and during the movie, think about what you like and don't like about it. Try to remember these things, because you will need them during the writing part.
Go home, and write down all the information that you gathered during the movie. Let all the information sit for up to a day because you need time to think over the movie. But, don't let yourself take more than a day, because if you wait too long, you tend to lose interest and forget important things that you felt.
Write all the information down in a format that is readable for others. Remember to include a basic summary for people who haven't heard of the movie, but remember to not give away the ending, or any other part that they wouldn't want to have ruined for them.
Remember to aim for about 600-700 words for the entire review.
Hand out copies of your review to other people, so they can have the chance to read your opinion, and after time, you may start to get people wanting more and more reviews.
Another step would be to submit your reviews to movie review sites.

Tips

Remember, try reviewing every movie you see, because when you get into the habit, it will become easier.
Once you gain more confidence in your reviews, try to match the tone of each with the style of the movie. For example, a humorous writing style would work well for a comedy, whereas a more serious tone would be good for writing a drama review.
When joining movie review sites, develop a personality for yourself. The best critics in the world are known for their personalities not really if they think movies are good or bad. It may be good to put your favorite movies together on a top movie list.
Make your review much like a newspaper article, put your most important things at the top and your least important facts or comments at the end.

Warnings

Try not to slam actors too much, because if it gets too out of hand, they may consider legal action against you. Just be careful.

Related wikiHows

Article provided by wikiHow, a collaborative writing project to build the world's largest, highest quality how-to manual. Please edit this article and find author credits at the original wikiHow article on How to Write a Movie Review. All content on wikiHow can be shared under a Creative Commons license.

How to Write an Essay

from wikiHow - The How to Manual That You Can Edit

Essays can range from being five paragraphs to twenty pages or more, covering any topic, whether it's what you learned from your dog, or why societies become hierarchies. What all essays have in common, however, is that they must stay true to the roots of the word "essay" which derives from the French infinitive essayer, meaning "to try" or "to attempt". An essay is essentially your attempt to explain your point of view, and a skillfully written essay is clear, illuminating and informative.

Steps

Define the context. If the essay is assigned, certain parameters will usually be defined for you, such as the length of the essay, format of the title page, and the intended audience (e.g. your teacher, an admissions committee). and what length is appropriate. No matter what, if you're given directions, follow them. A brilliant essay might still fail to get its point across if it doesn't follow the rules.
Choose a topic. Often this will be decided for you, but if not, try to choose something you're interested in or, better yet, passionate about. It will make the essay easier to write. You can also think of your thesis statement at this point, but it shouldn't be set in stone since it may be elaborated or changed as you do your research in the next step. A thesis statement is what your essay is attempting to explain and prove. You can brainstorm a few different thesis statements and use them to guide your research. Some examples:
- I deserve this scholarship because I am going to give back to the community.
- Crop failure is directly caused by lack of fertility in soils, not by drought.
- Making people take tests before they're allowed to keep pets would benefit society in many ways.
Gather your information. Whether it's personal observations or scientific facts, you'll need evidence to back up your thesis statement. Take detailed notes, keeping track of which facts come from which sources. As you're researching your topic, don't ignore facts and claims that seem to disprove your thesis statement. A good essayist includes the contrary evidence and shows why such evidence is not valid.
- Going with the example about crop failure above, what if you find a research study with graphs showing that every time there's a drought, there are more crop failures? Maybe all those crop failures occurred on farms that had poor soils, and unless the condition of the soils can be provided, the crop failures can't be attributed solely to drought.
Plan your essay. This is the time to solidify your thesis statement. Look over all of your research and notes: Can you observe any patterns or observations? Try making a mind map to organize your thoughts. Maybe you started out wanting to show how you'd give back to the community, but now you see a better point would be that you're a good role model for others like yourself. Let the evidence speak for itself. If you don't have enough information to demonstrate anything, you may need to do more research or modify your thesis statement (or even your topic). If you have enough material to sustain a thesis statement, however, make an outline to organize your research with headings and sub-headings.
Write the body of your essay first. Identify three or more points that support and/or explain your thesis statement. Each point should be supported by specific evidence, examples or arguments. In shorter essays, such as a five-paragraph essay, each point should be supported by a single paragraph; but in longer essays, an entire page or more might be required to demonstrate a single point. Use your outline as a guide, presenting the information in full sentences that flow logically from one to the next. After you write out all of your points, arrange the points themselves so that they flow logically from one to the next.
- Be careful about generalizing. Statements such as "_____ is the most important problem facing the world today," can cause your reader to dismiss your position out of hand if he/she disagrees with you. On the other hand, "_____ is one of the most important problems facing the world today," is at least a bit harder to argue with.
- Be careful not to use 'I statements' such as "I think this..." For most essay topics, your opinions will not be persuasive. Use evidence instead.
- Unless you are writing a personal opinion piece, you should not need to use the personal pronouns "I" , "you" or "we", nor "my", "your" or "our". If you can't rephrase the statement to remove the first-person pronoun, then you probably don't have enough information to back up your point. E.g. Instead of writing, "I found Frum to be conservatively-biased", show why your statement is true: "Clearly, Frum is conservatively-biased when he writes...".
Conclude your essay. Summarize your points and suggest ways in which your conclusion can be thought of in a larger sense. What are the implications of your thesis statement being true? What's the next step? What questions remain unanswered? This is not the place to introduce any new information that supports your thesis--you should only be "repackaging" what you already discussed, using a broader perspective.
Write the introduction. Now that you've written the body and the conclusion, you're in the best position to tell the reader what they're getting into. Explain your thesis statement, and how you're going to affirm it, without being too specific. Do not use obvious expressions such as, "This essay is about..." or "The topic of this essay is..." or "I will now show that...". One approach is to begin with a general statement, then follow it with a question or problem, then with your thesis statement, and a brief overview of your points.
- Example: Every year, thousands of animals end up in shelters, unwanted and sometimes abused. This not only causes suffering to the animals, but it also costs local governments millions of dollars. Is there any way that this can be prevented? One proposed solution is to require pet-owners to become educated before they can buy a pet. While many people may resist this requirement, it may be more readily accepted if the benefits are clearly shown to outweigh the costs.
- For longer essays, it's useful to follow the "inverted pyramid" whereby you start off with a very broad description of your topic and gradually narrow it down to your specific thesis statement. This is the typical structure of a "literature review" in a scientific paper and may constitute up to half, sometimes more, of your essay.
Read through your essay. For now, don't worry about typos or grammatical errors; underline them so you can go back and fix them later. Go from start to finish to see how your essay flows. Does each sentence lead smoothly to the next? Does each paragraph flow logically to the next? Each statement should be connected or related somehow to the one before it, not thrown randomly together. There are many ways to transition from one idea to the next:
- one happens before or after the other:I first started to realize that I was in the minority when I was in middle school...My realization was confirmed when I proceeded to high school.
- one elaborates on the other:Plants need water to survive...A plant's ability to absorb water depends on the nutrition of the soil.
- one contrasts with the other: Vegetarians argue that land is unnecessarily wasted by feeding animals to be eaten as food...Opponents argue that land being used for grazing would not be able to be used to create any other kind of food.
- one is caused or affected by the other: I will be the first person in my family to graduate from college...I am inspired to continue my family's progress through the generations.
- one is similar to the other: Organic food is thought to be better for the environment...Local food is believed to achieve the same goals.
Revise, revise, revise! Writing the paper the first time is not the most important part of writing an essay—revision is! Sometimes the paper you write is not the essay you originally planned. It is difficult to accomplish all that one sets out to in a paper, and sometimes you may find that your ideas about your subject have changed as you've been writing. Make sure you're happy with the way your paper presents its points. Don't like it? Re-arrange it (that's one of the great things about writing with a word processor; it's easy to do things like this). Once you're happy with the body, make sure the conclusion and introduction (in that order) still match it AND match the way you see your topic now. If not, rewrite them to fit the essay you did write (not the one you started out to write) and the way you see your topic now.
Proofread. Now check for spelling and/or grammatical errors. If using a word processor's spell checker, remember that it only checks to see if a word is misspelled. For example, if you meant to use the word "write" and instead used "writ" the spell checker will pass it without noticing, since 'writ' is an actual word.
- Pick out any repetitive words. Vary your language with the help of a thesaurus. Consult a dictionary to make sure that you're using the synonym correctly.
- Avoid using colloquial (informal) writing. Do not use contractions or abbreviations, such as don't, can't, won't, shouldn't, could've, or haven't. Use formal English: do not, cannot, will not, should not, could have, have not. Your essay should have a serious tone, even if written in a light or lyrical style.
- Use English punctuation correctly. Consult a style book if you are unsure how to properly use quotation marks, colons, semi-colons, apostrophes, or commas. Avoid using exclamation points to emphasize your statements.

Tips

Have someone read your paper aloud to you or read it aloud to a tape recorder and play it back. Your ears are sometimes better than your eyes at picking up mistakes in language—-after all, they've had more practice.
Avoid the following:
- making columns of point-form lists
- making a comma-spliced list inside a paragraph
- using et cetera (etc.); it's a cop-out. When teachers see "etc.", they may interpret it to mean, "and I can’t think of anything else".
Refer to all illustrations and diagrams as Figure 1, 2, 3, etc. You can refer to tables and charts as Table 1, 2, 3, etc. or as figures. Photos can be referred to as Photo 1, 2, 3, etc., or as figures. Make sure you do refer to all figures in the text of your essay. A figure should not be included if you do not specifically mention it in the body of the essay or research report.
Remember that writing is a skill and, like any other skill, requires practice to become a master of it. One easy way to practice is to read more essays in the style and subjects that you write yours.
In short, to your readers, your essay should tell them what you are going to tell them (introduction), tell them (body paragraphs), and tell them what you just told them (conclusion).
Essays come in many shapes and sizes. This is a general overview, but you can learn about the expectations associated with various kinds of essays by doing further reading here at wikiHow:

Warnings

Do not get bogged down in writing excessive background information or otherwise rambling off topic; it is considered essay "padding". If it does not relate to your thesis statement, cut it out.
Do not plagiarize. Parenthetically reference or footnote all borrowed quotes, facts and ideas that are not your own, even if you are rewording them. Most faculty can quickly spot plagiarized content and can verify it with a 5-second Google-search. Plagiarism is a serious offense in the academic world; students have been expelled from colleges and universities for plagiarizing.
DON'T BE TOO FORMULAIC. If you can't write an introduction and a conclusion without your introduction sounding like this, "In this paper I'm going to tell you this, this, and this..." or your conclusion telling us what you said before, in your essay, DON'T USE THEM!!! Come up with a more creative way of telling your audience what they need to know. An essay, contrary to what you might have been told, is not a sandwich-you don't need bread on both sides...

Related wikiHows

Sources and Citations

http://www.uk-student.net/modules/wfsection/viewarticles.php?category=2

Article provided by wikiHow, a collaborative writing project to build the world's largest, highest quality how-to manual. Please edit this article and find author credits at the original wikiHow article on How to Write an Essay. All content on wikiHow can be shared under a Creative Commons license.

martes, 19 de febrero de 2008

How to write a lesson plan

One of the most important things a teacher will face in his/her career is how to effectively write a lesson plan. This is extremely useful for outlining goals for all students and gives the educator direction as far as classroom management is concerned. A teacher must ask themselves three questions before figuring out how to write a lesson plan. The first two questions are: where are your students going with the material and what will determine that they have reached their destination? Teachers must then ask themselves: what will determine when the student has arrived at this destination? The following are some helpful tips for teachers trying to learn how to write a lesson plan for their students.

A teacher should always consider their intended goals for the subject material. Goals determine purpose, aim, along with rationale for both teacher and students alike during classroom hours. An educator should express intermediate goals, which take previous studies and activities into account, when learning how to write a lesson plan.

Moreover, teachers should incorporate their objectives into the study material. Objectives focus on what a teacher’s students will do to attain more knowledge and high-level skills. Objectives for the daily material should be taken from the larger aims of the unit. Students should be given a reasonable, well-defined time period in which to accomplish these goals.

Prerequisites are also used when figuring out how to write a lesson plan. Prerequisites help the teacher determine the mental state of all their students to see if they are ready to proceed ahead. It is also useful for other teachers, who already know how to write a lesson plan to review the material. This gives the teacher the ability to factor in prep activities that will guarantee each student will be able to meet all of the objectives.

Materials should be taken into consideration when learning how to write a lesson plan. Teachers can determine the amount of prep time, resources, and classroom management that will be required in order to ensure the students meet the objectives. Educators can also get a better idea of what type of materials will be needed for example books, resources, and equipment.

A teacher should always consider incorporating descriptions as they learn how write a lesson plan. This will allow the educator to easily share his/her thoughts, feelings, and advice with other fellow teachers. This description should also provide a basic overview of all of the material to be covered.

A teacher, who is learning how to write a lesson plan, should be familiar with the concepts and procedures. This is a step-by-step description, which will allow teachers to replicate the final outcome for use within the classroom and achieve all of the objectives in a timely manner. It is not only helpful in educating the teacher on how to write a lesson plan, but also ways in which to implement it. This section will focus on the items the teacher should have their students working on during class time for proper instruction. There should be a beginning (introduction), middle (main activity), and end (closure) within the program.

In order for teachers to assess the effectiveness of their objectives, an educator needs to evaluate his/her students. A teacher can do this by gathering a student’s work and coming up with some type of grading system that pertains to the particular objectives, as they were outlined, when learning how to write a lesson plan. Students can be quizzed over particular concepts and problems, in order to discover, if the objectives were achieved.

Teaching is tough enough and it can be made even more difficult if the educator is not prepared. Learning how to write a lesson plan is one of the most valuable tools a teacher can have by his or her side prior to entering the classroom.

http://www.online-distance-learning-education.com/article_info.php/articles_id/98

How to Write a Book Review

There are two approaches to book reviewing: the descriptive and the critical. A descriptive review is one in which the writer, without over-enthusiasm or exaggeration, gives the essential information about a book. This is done by description and exposition, by stating the perceived aims and purposes of the author, and by quoting striking passages from the text. A critical review is one in which the writer describes and evaluates the book, in terms of accepted literary and historical standards, and supports this evaluation with evidence from the text. The following pointers are meant to be suggestions for writing a critical review.

Basic Requirements

Simply stated, the reviewer must know two things in order to write a critical review:

the work being reviewed and
the requirements of the genre to which the work belongs (novel, short story, biography, poetry, etc.).

Knowledge of the work demands not only an attempt to understand what the author's purpose is and how the component parts of the work contribute to that purpose, but also some knowledge of the author--his/her nationality, time period, other works etc.
Knowledge of the genre means understanding the art form and how it functions. Without such understanding, the reviewer has no historical or literary standard upon which to base his/her evaluation.

Minimum Essentials of a Book Review

Description, not a summary, of the book. Sufficient description should be given so that the reader, as he reads the review, will have some understanding of the author's thoughts. This account of the contents of a book can often be woven into the critical remarks.
Something about, not a biography of, the author. Biographical information should be relevant to the subject of the review and enhance the reader's understanding of the work under discussion.
An appraisal, preferably indirect, through description and exposition and based on the aims and purposes of the author. While a critical review is a statement of opinion, it must be a considered judgement including:
- a statement of the reviewer's understanding of the author's purpose
- how well the reviewer feels the author's purpose has been achieved
- evidence to support the reviewer's judgement of the author' achievement.

Preliminary Mechanical Steps

Read the book with care.
Note effective passages for quoting.
Note your impressions as you read.
Allow yourself time to assimilate what you have read so that the book can be seen in perspective.
Keep in mind the need for achieving a single impression which must be made clear to the reader.

The Review Outline

The review outline enables you to get an over-all grasp of the organization of the review, to determine what central point your review is going to make, to eliminate inessentials or irrelevancies, and to fill in gaps or omissions.

By examining the notes you have made and eliminating those which have no relationship to your central thesis, and by organizing them into groups, several aspects of the book will emerge: e.g., theme, character, structure, etc. After ordering your topics--determining in what sequence they will be discussed--write down all the major headings of the outline and then fill in the subdivisions. Keep in mind that all parts of the outline should support your thesis or central point.

The Draft

The opening paragraph, like the concluding one, is in a position of emphasis and usually sets the tone of the paper. Among the various possible introductions are:

a statement of the thesis
a statement of the author's purpose
a statement about the topicality of the work or its significance
a comparison of the work to others by the same author or within the same genre
a statement about the author

The main body of the review should logically develop your thesis as organized by your outline. Changes in the outline may need to be made and transitional paragraphs introduced, but the aim should be toward logical development of the central point. Quoted material should be put in quotation marks, or indented, and properly footnoted.

The concluding paragraph may sum up or restate your thesis or may make the final judgement regarding the book. No new information or ideas should be introduced in the conclusion.

Steps in Revising the Draft

Allow some time to elapse, at least a day, before starting your revision.
Correct all mistakes in grammar and punctuation as you find them.
Read your paper through again looking for unity, organization and logical development.
If necessary, do not hesitate to make major revisions in your draft.
Verify quotations for accuracy and check the format and content of references.

Some Considerations When Reviewing:

Fiction

(above all, do not give away the story)

Character
From what sources are the characters drawn?
What is the author's attitude toward his characters?
Are the characters flat or three dimensional?
Does character development occur?
Is character delineation direct or indirect?
Theme
What is/are the major theme(s)?
How are they revealed and developed?
Is the theme traditional and familiar, or new and original?
Is the theme didactic, psychological, social, entertaining, escapist, etc. in purpose or intent?
Plot
How are the various elements of plot (eg, introduction, suspense, climax, conclusion) handled?
What is the relationship of plot to character delineation?
To what extent, and how, is accident employed as a complicating and/or resolving force?
What are the elements of mystery and suspense?
What other devices of plot complication and resolution are employed?
Is there a sub-plot and how is it related to the main plot?
Is the plot primary or secondary to some of the other essential elements of the story (character, setting, style, etc.)?
Style
What are the "intellectual qualities" of the writing (e.g., simplicity, clarity)?
What are the "emotional qualities" of the writing (e.g., humour, wit, satire)?
What are the "aesthetic qualities" of the writing (e.g., harmony, rhythm)?
What stylistic devices are employed (e.g., symbolism, motifs, parody, allegory)?
How effective is dialogue?
Setting
What is the setting and does it play a significant role in the work?
Is a sense of atmosphere evoked, and how?
What scenic effects are used and how important and effective are they?
Does the setting influence or impinge on the characters and/or plot?

Some Considerations When Reviewing Biography

Does the book give a "full-length" picture of the subject?
What phases of the subject's life receive greatest treatment and is this treatment justified?
What is the point of view of the author?
How is the subject matter organized: chronologically, retrospectively, etc.?
Is the treatment superficial or does the author show extensive study into the subject's life?
What source materials were used in the preparation of the biography?
Is the work documented?
Does the author attempt to get at the subject's hidden motives?
What important new facts about the subject's life are revealed in the book?
What is the relationship of the subject's career to contemporary history?
How does the biography compare with others about the same person?
How does it compare with other works by the same author?

Some Considerations When Reviewing History

With what particular period does the book deal?
How thorough is the treatment?
What were the sources used?
Is the account given in broad outline or in detail?
Is the style that of reportorial writing, or is there an effort at interpretive writing?
What is the point of view or thesis of the author?
Is the treatment superficial or profound?
For what group is the book intended (textbook, popular, scholarly, etc.)?
What part does biographical writing play in the book?
Is social history or political history emphasized?
Are dates used extensively, and if so, are they used intelligently?
Is the book a revision? How does it compare with earlier editions?
Are maps, illustrations, charts, etc. used and how are these to be evaluated?

Some Considerations When Reviewing Poetry

Is this a work of power, originality, individuality?
What kind of poetry is under review (epic, lyrical, elegaic, etc.)?
What poetical devices have been used (rhyme, rhythm, figures of speech, imagery, etc.), and to what effect?
What is the central concern of the poem and is it effectively expressed?

Sources of Book Reviews

Many indexes, such as ABI Inform and Historical Abstracts include citations to book reviews. Reviews can also be found at book-related online sites, such as Amazon.Com. The following indexes are devoted entirely to book reviews:

Book Review Digest 1905+ (Z 1219 B72 REF INDEX)
Book Review Index 1965+ (Z 1035 A1 B72 REF INDEX)
An Index to Book Reviews in the Humanities 1960-1990 (Z 1219 I38 REF INDEX)
Canadian Book Review Annual 1975+ (Z 1375 C3 REF INDEX)

http://www.library.dal.ca/how/bookrev.htm

How to Write a Composition/Story

from wikiHow - The How to Manual That You Can Edit

Cluster pre-writing makes the tough job of writing a composition or easier to complete. Following these easy you can write an excellent composition or story.

Steps

Use a plain piece of paper to complete the process. Some people like to use a standard piece of writing paper while others like to think big and use easel size paper. Alternatively you can use a chalkboard to draw the outline diagram. Either way leave lots of room to complete the process.
In the center of the paper, or chalkboard, state the subject briefly. Draw a circle around the subject.
In the next set of circles write your main ideas.
In the final set of circles, write ideas under the topic of the secondary circles.
Re-check the clusters to help brainstorm for further ideas.
Use the clusters to outline and write your story or composition.
Write the composition using the clusters to help create the topic sentence, supporting paragraphs and summary.

Tips

You can always add more circles to your guiding diagram if you think the much you have is not sufficient.
Remember there is no time limit. So take your time and let your ideas run free.
Open source software called FreeMind can help with the pre-writing process.

Sources and Citations

[*http://freemind.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Main_Page]

Article provided by wikiHow, a collaborative writing project to build the world's largest, highest quality how-to manual. Please edit this article and find author credits at the original wikiHow article on How to Write a Composition/Story. All content on wikiHow can be shared under a Creative Commons license.

How To Write a Composition - For Students

The word 'composition' may mean different things in different circumstances. It could be a personal narrative, a short work of fiction or prose, an essay, a dramatic work or a poem. Each of these works has its own set of rules. This site has articles describing the how-to process of several types of composition: poetry, the essay, and others. This article will give you a general overview of the composition.

Know your purpose: What type of composition is this going to be? Make sure you understand the expectations. Typically, your teacher will provide you with an explanation and lecture on what you are to write. Read this over carefully. Ask your instructor if you have questions. You will find several helpful links at the end of this article for online resources also.
Choose your topic: Decide what you will write about. Here are suggestions based on different types of compositions.

Essay: Practically every essay topic can be approached from multiple perspectives. Choose a topic and take a stance; your essay will seek to convince readers of the legitimacy of your stance. Choose something that is important to you. It is easier to write about what you believe in. Write this in 'first person' -- 'I' (like you are talking) to 'second person'-- 'you' (a person you are speaking to).
Personal narrative: Personal narrative is a story about you. Choose something that made an impression on you, negative or positive. It might be a vacation, a funny experience, a crisis, a death, a dangerous or frightening situation you encountered, etc. Write in first person.
Play: Write about what you know. Your play could develop from a personal narrative. But regardless, include things you have some knowledge that is grounded either in personal experience or research, or both. The play is written in dialog with the speaker indicated. Stage directions - defining the elements of set and telling characters how to speak lines or move on stage - are written italicized and in parentheses.
Short story: This is a form of prose fiction, a creative non-poetic kind of composition. Write this in third person (as if you were a narrator) or first person if you speak as your main character. If first person voice is your choice, then your short story will read much like a narrative, but it is not necessarily something that happened to you. You can base it upon something you have experienced, but you tell it as a general story. Your options are unlimited; you could write about anything that exists in reality, or make up your own world for a short story.
Poetry: Poetry is focused on sound, syllabication, rhythm patterns and descriptive language. It might be free verse, or instead written in one of many rigid poetic form like sonnets or Haiku (very short Japanese poems).

Write your introduction: For every composition except poetry, you will need to introduce either your topic and position (for an essay) or characters, plot and setting (for narrative, short story and play). See the article 'How to Write an Introduction.'
Develop the 'body' of your work:
- Essay
  - Brainstorm a list of 10 points you want to make about your topic. Jot down ten details or ideas that will support the point you are making. These may be facts, examples, data, statistics, quotes from a source, or just common sense ideas.
  - Group the 10 points into three groups. Organize your list of details into three categories based upon similarity. Like the bicycle, these will be the supporting 'spokes' of your topic.
  - Label the three groups. The labels will ultimately become the topic sentences for each body paragraph of your essay. The three or four details in each group will be the supporting sentences. Using this outline, you will have the meat of your essay.
  - Write your three paragraphs: Write the main points and details into complete sentences. Remember to keep each organized and follow your outline. This will form the body of your essay. If you are required to make your essay 200 words long, you should have more than enough already. If it needs to be longer, make each of the three topics into two paragraphs.
- Narrative, short story and play: Weave these details into your composition.
- Poetry: Follow the rubric for the poetry type you need to write.
Write your conclusion (for all but poetry): This simply wraps up what you have said in your composition. It can basically restate what you said in your introduction. If you composition is longer, you can sum up your main points. Try to phrase them a little differently so it will not sound repetitive.
Use P-O-W-E-R: You have done the P-plan, O-organize and W-write components; now you will finish with E-edit and R-revise. You will do this for every type of writing. Reread your work. Look for spelling, grammar, and content problems. Use your computer spell and grammar check but use your own wisdom also. You can have someone proof-read it also.
Every good piece of writing goes through two or more revisions. Let your thoughts 'gel.' Come back to the composition and you will see improvements you might not have seen when it was still 'hot.' A composition is like a piece of pottery: first it's plastic, then its greenware, then it's bisque and finally glazeware!
Rewrite your final copy. If you type your composition, be sure to save a copy for future reference. And who knows, you may submit it and find you have great potential!

Never underestimate your writing skills. Writing is 'art in words.' I always tell my students that everyone has a composition - or many - locked within. Everyone around you has a story to tell. All you need is to practice the skills to write your composition.

Required Tools:

Use a computer to prepare and edit your compositon.

Use your spell and grammar check.

Use a thesaurus or the thesaurus function on your computer.

Caution:

Don't 'bloat' your story with extra words just to add to your word count.

Use descriptive language; avoid overused words.

Quick Tips:

Use clear, strong, complete sentences and organized paragraphs.

Use your thesaurus to find descriptive word options.

http://www.howtodothings.com/hobbies/a4279-how-to-write-a-composition.html

How To Write A Whole Composition

How To Write A Whole Composition

The following is a general structure to follow for many kinds of writing. Adapt it to specialized assignments as appropriate.

I. Introduction

The introduction is intended to draw the reader into the body of material to follow. It should begin with a general statement or question, sometimes called the "thesis statement" or "thesis question," followed by a quick narrowing down to the main theme to be developed in the body. Set the stage quickly, give appropriate background, then move right into a transition sentence that will set up the reader for the body.

II. Body (Argument)

The body of a written piece is where you elaborate, defend, and expand the thesis introduced in the introduction. The body should support your main contention with supporting evidence and possible objections. A good body presents both sides of a case, pro and con. As you make your case, save your best argument for last. When presenting contrary views, be sure to set forth the strongest arguments so you can avoid being charged with erecting a "straw man." The body includes three components:

Elaboration:	Spell out the details by defining, or by clarifying and adding relevant, pertinent information.
Illustration:	Paint a verbal picture that helps make or clarify your point(s). Well illustrated pieces are easier to read and follow than abstract ones.
Argumentation:	Give the reasons, justifications, and rationales for the position or view you have taken in the introduction. Draw inferences for the reader and explain the significance or assertions or claims being made.

When moving from one sub-point or argument to another, use connecting or transitional words and phrases that enable your reader to easily follow the flow of your thinking. The following is a partial list of logical connectors that you can use:

exceptions - but, alas, however, etc.

illustrations - for instance, for example, etc.

conclusions - thus, so, therefore, consequently, etc.

comparisons - similarly, by contrast, etc.

qualifications - yet, still, etc.

additions - moreover, furthermore, etc.

III. Conclusion

Make your final appeal to the reader, a finishing, all-encompassing statement that wraps up your presentation in a powerful or even dramatic fashion. Normally a single paragraph, brief and concise, will suffice. The purpose of the conclusion is to leave the reader with an idea or thought that captures the essence of the body while provoking further reflection and consideration.

jueves, 14 de febrero de 2008

Help for Students!!! How to Write a Short Story

How To Write a Short Story

The big idea

In my class, a "short story" is anything that is prose (that is to say, not poetry) and tells a made-up, or fictional, story. "Short" can mean anywhere from about a page and a half for fifth graders all the way up to ten or twelve pages, or even more, for eighth graders. When students ask me how long a story needs to be, I always say, "As long as it takes to do a good job."

Before you begin

To do a good job, a story must do these things:

have an interesting main character that the reader cares about

have a clearly-described setting

show the main character solving--or trying to solve--a problem.

How to do it

The Characters

Stories need characters. Interesting characters are those that do and say interesting things. They have fears, friends, enemies, hopes for the future and favorite things they like to eat for breakfast, just as you have. In fact, I have a form that I often have students fill out before they start writing, on which they list these character details before they start writing. That way, the details are at their fingertips and they can slip them into the story at strategic points in order to make the writing more realistic. (NOTE: you need to USE these details where they would naturally show up in the story. You DON'T just list them at the beginning.) We also use those same details to generate the main problem of the story, as you will see below. Even if you don't use the form, however, you should spend some time thinking of these character details before you get going.

The Setting

The setting is the where and when of the story. You don't have to go overboard in describing the setting. If everyone in the story is riding horses and hanging out in a saloon, I pretty much get the idea that the setting is somewhere in the west in the 1800's. If the story starts with the hero riding the turbolift to the spaceport to catch the next rocket to Mars, I understand that I'm reading a science fiction story set in the future. Don't get things mixed up, though: When you have a medieval monk take a break from his work copying books in the scriptorium to go play Nintendo 64, I'm going to get confused.

A few well-placed details of setting can really set the mood. If the first scene opens in the dead of night with rain pounding against the windows and the wind howling outside, I'm ready to settle in for a really spooky story.

Don't ignore setting. It can help your story.

The Main Problem

If you don't have a main problem, you don't have a story. All stories have problems that must be solved: the Good Terminator has to protect Sarah Connor from the Evil Terminator; Jim Hawkins has to elude the pirates and bring home the gold from Treasure Island; Dr. Grant has to save the kids from the rampaging dinosaurs of Jurassic Park. Let me make this clear: STORIES ARE ABOUT CHARACTERS SOLVING PROBLEMS.

In class, we try to have big problems grow out of the details we have developed for our main characters. If our character wants to play professional football, what would be a good main problem for a story? Any number of things:

His girlfriend--the love of his life--will leave him if he continues to play football

He gets in an accident and has to fight his way back to playing condition

He gets in an accident and must learn to adjust to life without football

Congress passes a law prohibiting football

In order to liven up the game, the NFL replaces the ball with a bomb set to explode at some randomly-determined time.

If the main character you've developed is deathly afraid of spiders, what could your story be about?

Her house is invaded by millions of spiders

The only job she can find is as the spider keeper at the zoo

She finds herself slowly transforming into a spider

She crash-lands in the jungle and must live among the !Lwana tribesmen of the Amazon basin, for whom enormous spiders are a staple food

You get the idea. Big problems for stories are easy to come by. A good story is about an interesting character facing--and trying to solve--a big problem.

Other Tips for Story-Writing Success

Unless you're writing a fairy tale, do not begin a story with the words, "Once upon a time" or its evil twins "One day," "One dark night," or anything similar.

You should also avoid, "Hi, my name is..."

Do use a lot of dialogue. People talk a lot, so characters in stories should, too. It brings stories to life. Just remember to make a new paragraph every time you switch speakers.

Get a good mixture of dialogue and narration, so the reader can visualize the setting, what the characters are doing, and so on.

Try beginning a story with either dialogue or action.

Don't be afraid to rewrite. If it's not great, fix it.

http://millennium.fortunecity.com/donald/368/help/story.html

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How to Write a Short Story

from wikiHow - The How to Manual That You Can Edit

Whether you’re an aspiring professional writer or a stay-at-home mom with something to say, the short story is the perfect medium. While writing a novel is a Herculean task, just about anybody can craft and, most importantly, finish, a short story. That doesn’t mean that short stories are easy to write, though, and it certainly doesn’t mean that they aren’t as artistically valuable as novels. With practice, patience, and a passion for writing, they can be every bit as moving and memorable as their much longer cousins.

Steps

Read plenty of short stories. Nothing can help you “learn” how to write a good short story better than reading good short stories. Choose authors that you enjoy, and also choose some of the “classics.” Pay attention to how the authors develop their characters, write dialogue, and structure their plots.
Gather ideas for your story. Inspiration can strike at any time, so carry a notepad with you wherever you go so that you can write down story ideas as they come to you. Most of the time, you’ll just think of small snippets of information (a catastrophic event around which you can build a plot, a character’s name or appearance, etc.) but sometimes you’ll get lucky and a whole story will reveal itself to you in a couple of minutes. If you have trouble finding inspiration, or if you need to write a story in a hurry (for a class, for example), learn how to brainstorm.
Choose an idea and flesh it out. At the very least, a story should have an exposition (the story leading up to the climax), a climax (a turning point in a story brought about by conflict between characters or within a character), and a resolution (a satisfying ending to the story in which the central conflict is resolved - or not). Move backward or forward from your starting idea (it may or may not be the beginning of the story), and ask “What happens next?” or “what happened before this?”
Know your characters. For a story to be believable, the characters have to be believable, and their actions should appear inevitable given who they are. In other words, you should know as much as possible about your characters, from what their central motivations are to what their favorite foods are. You won’t include all this information in your story, but the more you know, the more your characters will come to life, both for you and for the reader. Sometimes it helps just to listen to unimportant conversations between characters in your head, even if it won't be in the story.
Limit the breadth of your story. A novel can occur over millions of years and include a multitude of subplots, a variety of locations, and an army of supporting characters. The main events of a short story should occur in a relatively short period of time (days or even minutes), and you typically won’t be able to develop effectively more than one plot, two or three main characters, and one setting. If your story has much more breadth, it probably needs to be a novella or novel.
Decide who will tell the story. There are three main points of view from which to tell a story: first-person (“I”), second-person (“you”), and third-person (“he” or “she”). In a first-person story, a character in the story tells the story; in the second-person the reader is made a character in the story; and in the third-person, an outside narrator tells the story. (Second-person narration is rarely used.) Keep in mind that first-person narrators can only tell what they know (which will be limited to what they see firsthand or are told by others), while third-person narrators can either know everything and explore every character’s thoughts, or be limited to only that which can be observed.
Start writing. Depending on how thoroughly you’ve sketched out your plot and characters, the actual writing process may simply be one of choosing the right words. Generally, however, writing is arduous. You probably won’t know your characters and plot as well as you thought, but it doesn’t matter. Outlines are not the same as stories, and actually writing a story is the only way to complete one.
Come out swinging. The first page—some would say the first sentence—of any writing should grab the reader’s attention and leave him wanting more. A quick start is especially important in short stories because you don’t have much room to tell your story. Don’t dilly-dally with long introductions of the characters or uninteresting descriptions of the setting: get right into the plot, and reveal details about the characters and setting piece-by-piece as you go along.
Keep writing. You’re almost certain to hit some bumps in the road to finishing your story. You’ve got to work through them, though. Set aside a time to write each and every day, and make it a goal to finish, say, a page each day. Even if you end up throwing away what you wrote on that day, you’ve been writing and thinking about the story, and that will keep you going in the long run.
Let the story write itself. As you write your story, you may want to turn your plot in a different direction than you had planned, or you may want to substantially change or remove a character. Listen to your characters if they tell you to do something different, and don’t worry about scrapping your plans altogether if you can make a better story as you go.
Revise and edit. When you’ve finished the story, go back through it and correct mechanical mistakes, as well as logical and semantic errors. In general, make sure the story flows and the characters and their problems are introduced and resolved appropriately. If you have time, put the completed story down for a few days or weeks before editing. Distancing yourself from the story in this way will help you see it more clearly when you pick it back up.
Get some second opinions. Send your revised and edited story off to a trusted friend or relative for revisions, edits, and suggestions. Let your reviewers know that you want to hear their real opinions of the story. Give them time to read it and think about it, and give them a copy that they can write on. Make sure you consider everything that your reviewers tell you—not just the parts you would like to hear. Thank your reviewers for reading your story, and don’t argue with them.
Incorporate whatever edits, revisions, and suggestions you feel are valid. Your writing will be better if you can carefully consider constructive criticism, but you don’t have to follow all the advice you get. Some of the suggestions may not be very good. It’s your story, and you need to make the final call.

Tips

Can’t find friends or relatives honest enough to tell you what they really think about your story? Consider joining a writers’ group, where you can learn tips and tricks from other writers and get (hopefully) quality critiques. You can probably find a local club, but there are also online groups.
You can write about a past event or a fantasy that you have. Your main character can be an adaptation of yourself or someone you know. But be careful, because real people are often not as dynamic as story characters.
Do research. Yes, really. If you are trying to set a story in the 1950's, research the family dynamics, clothing, slang, etc. of the period. If you try to write without knowing the background of what you are writing about, the story will probably seem amateurish.
You may not need or want to go through the brainstorming and pre-writing work; many writers skip these steps, and you may find going through all the steps of the writing process superfluous. That said, everybody should try pre-writing at some point, even if it’s just once. Also, without planning beforehand, it is very unlikely you will have a good story.
If you're having trouble brainstorming, try making a web or table; create about five main sentences for your short story. It might help to do a "freewrite" which is to simply write or type everything that comes into your mind for a certain time period, usually between 5 and 30 minutes.
Develop your own style. Your unique voice will only come through practice. You can start by imitating other writers or, if you are trying to write for a particular genre, you can try to tune your thoughts to that “frequency.” In the end, though, you just need to write voluminously to develop your voice.
Make sure you don't work your mind too hard at any one time. If you're having trouble coming up with ideas, just do something else. Come back to your story after a few hours or after a good night's sleep, and you'll be amazed at what you can then come up with!
While you may sometimes want to scrap a story, make sure you’ve got a good reason—not just an excuse—to do so. If you’re just stuck temporarily try to work through it. Sometimes you’ll come up with another idea that you’re more excited about. You may want to work on the new idea, but if this happens frequently, it can turn into a problem: you’ll start a lot of stories, but you won’t ever actually complete one.
Design a format. This is not particularly necessary unless you are showing it to other people. For instance: Is the story in center alignment? Are there chapters? Do the fonts differ? Are there paragraphs? Do you indent at the beginning of each paragraph? All of the above things are simply ideas that can help to organize your writing for better results if shown to others.
Is there a song or type of music that gets you connected to the emotions and events you want to convey through your writing? Try playing some during or before you start writing.
Think carefully about all the elements of a story, for example main character, setting, time period, genre, supporting characters, enemies and conflict, and plot.

Warnings

Don't become too proud of your story after you've finished it! Don't set yourself up for disappointment, which, in all likelihood, will come--especially if you submit the story for publication. Instead, remain professionally detached from it, as you would if you were taking care of a friend's dog.
Don’t get discouraged. If you’re trying to get your story published, it will most likely be rejected. Rejection is a big part of being a writer; sometimes it’s warranted, but sometimes it’s not. Be proud that you have completed a story—no easy task, at that—and keep practicing your craft if you enjoy it.
Don't get lazy about spelling and grammar! Show the readers you know what you're doing by presenting an error-free story.
Short stories are the hardest kind of fiction to write. You have to do everything that happens in a novel (introduce characters, create conflict, develop characters, resolve conflict) inside of twenty or thirty pages. Respect the genre. It isn't easy.
Do not steal published ideas, this is a serious crime. You may read and get story ideas but don't steal the author's plot.

Things You'll Need

pencil & paper (or computer)
patience
friends or fellow writers to critique you
brain
creativity

Related wikiHows

Sources and Citations

Howtowriteashortstory.wordpress.com Free storytelling lessons for beginners.
Storiesville.com Online community for short stories of various genres.
ShortStoryGroup.com A free forum where you can get your work critiqued by other writers (and critique theirs)
Seton Hill University Short story writing tips
Shortstorywiki.com Write your own shortstory or continue on an existing. This wiki exists for you to have fun.
Short Story Writing & Critique Group, a free online community of writers. We write, critique each other's works, and in general have a good time. There is a free forum for discussion & a weekly prompt for those who feel a little 'blocked'.

Article provided by wikiHow, a collaborative writing project to build the world's largest, highest quality how-to manual. Please edit this article and find author credits at the original wikiHow article on How to Write a Short Story. All content on wikiHow can be shared under a Creative Commons license.

miércoles, 20 de febrero de 2008

Steps

Tips

Warnings

Things You'll Need

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Steps

Tips

Warnings

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Steps

Tips

Warnings

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Steps

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martes, 19 de febrero de 2008

How to Write a Book Review

Basic Requirements

Minimum Essentials of a Book Review

Preliminary Mechanical Steps

The Review Outline

The Draft

Steps in Revising the Draft

Some Considerations When Reviewing:

Fiction

Some Considerations When Reviewing Biography

Some Considerations When Reviewing History

Some Considerations When Reviewing Poetry

Sources of Book Reviews

Steps

Tips

Sources and Citations

I. Introduction

II. Body (Argument)

III. Conclusion

jueves, 14 de febrero de 2008

How To Write a Short Story

Steps

Tips

Warnings

Things You'll Need

Related wikiHows

Sources and Citations

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